The Cultural Reproduction And Social Reproduction Sociology Essay

The Cultural Reproduction And Social Reproduction Sociology Essay The word Reproduction as defined in dictionaries is simply the act of copying something whether it be a document, a sound, a culture, so that is looks exactly like the original. Reproduction can be applied to both culture and society so that it turns out to be a process by which aspects of culture are passed on from person to person from society to society. This happens in a number of different ways and so it is helpful to understand a small part of this reproductions history; previously people moved from different countries and places taking with them their customs, traditions, and even behaviors which were learnt by other individuals, which lead to interaction between different people and therefore resulted in the transfer of this information which was accomplished through a process known as socialization. From this we see that both social reproduction and cultural reproduction are very much connected to each other. Cultural reproduction is the transmission of existing cultural values and norms from generation to generation. This is a process by which there is a continuity of cultural experience that has been carried on across time (which often results in social reproduction). Every society is mainly consisted of 3 classes: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class which may all be further subdivided into smaller classes (ex: occupation, etc.) When we look further into cultural reproduction of the social class, we find two opposing views concerning this issue: A- Culture as a set of class-instilled values B- Culture as a set of class-based skills and experiences A Every social class (especially the poor) has a set of values unique to it: a- Work ethic b- Family values c- Independence vs. dependence These values heavily influence the day-to-day behavior of each class. They are passed along widely in whole from one generation to the next and because of the self-achievable nature of these values, the members of various classes with either seize opportunities for advancement or will not. B When it comes to culture as a set of class-based skills and experiences, we are lead to 4 different outcomes. a- Self-promotion or self-elimination: This means by adjusting ones goals to match real chances of success as well as embracing or avoiding situations that could advantageous depending upon whether the individual feels socially comfortable. b- Institutional fit or mismatch: Children from the middle-class society are equipped with skills valued by ordinary institutions as a result of their parents socialization and valued cultural capital. Meanwhile, individuals with less cultural income are asked to perform at the same level as their more capitally-endowed peers and thus have to work harder to keep even. c- Informed vs. uninformed investments: Individuals with fewer cultural resources end up in less desirable positions and get less out of their cultural investments (such as college selection) through unwise decisions. d- Direct inclusion or exclusion: Members of the middle and upper classes tend to recruit individuals from those who share the same lifestyles, tastes, and experiences, and therefore exclude those who do not share them. On the other hand, social reproduction is rather a sociological term which refers to a process which both strengthens and preserves characteristics of a given social structure of tradition over a period of time. Even though reproduction may mean copying what existed in the past, it may not occur exactly for all societies. This is due to the environmental, social, economic conditions as well as technologies and processes that keep changing over time; eventually there are new individuals who have different characteristic and so relate to others in new and different ways. An example of social reproduction can be seen in birds such as pigeons and parrots, which sit together in a row on a wire and each facing the same direction. Even when they fly, they do so in the same direction and then come back to sit again on the same wire, all facing the same direction (like they are following something). Like them, social reproduction requires us to maintain the uniformity of language as well as communication (just like the birds have to follow one direction) over time. Communication means to stay connected. Just as males and females need each other to biologically reproduce, we need each other to socially reproduce so that we can communicate with each other and relate to experiences; but spoken language alone is not enough for communication Social reproduction allows us to create civilizations like the famous Taj Mahal and many others which can only happen when societies feel CONNECTED. Two sociologists: Karl Marx and Pierre Bourdieu ask What are the effects of Social Reproduction and Cultural Reproduction on schools? This is a question asked by many other sociologists and so the emphasis on the opinions of both sociologists about this topic of social and cultural reproduction is to answer the question above. Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 14 March 1883) was a German sociologist, philosopher, historian, political economist, political theorist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. He developed the socio-political theory of Marxism. His ideas have played a vital role in the development of social science and he published various books during his lifetime, with the most famous The communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1967-1894). Pierre Bourdieu (1 August 1930 23 January 2002) was a French sociologist, anthropologist, and philosopher and is known for inventing the term Cultural Reproduction. Both sociologists argued in their theories about the effects of Social Reproduction and Cultural Reproduction on schools. They talk about the important function of education is to socialize the working class into a culture of failure so that they take up, without question, routine and dull work. They also argue about that effects of both cultural and social reproduction on schools: the ideas that are taught the values, attitude and personality traits that are instilled in students the ways in which schools are organized Bourdieu also adds that social inequality is reproduced in the educational system and therefore legitimized just as Marx said: Students have to pursue on the formal teaching status quo and so therefore students rarely come into contact with ways of thinking that challenges the existing social order. They also argue that the position of the dominant class is justified by educational success and the under-privileged position of the lower class is legitimated by educational failure. Furthermore, they discuss further that schools socialize students into certain values, attitudes, and personality traits that fit the interest of the dominant social classes ways of working. These arguments lead Bourdieu to conclude that the major role of education in society is to contribute toward social reproduction which is the reproduction of the relationships of power and privilege between social classes. Therefore after looking further into what Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction are, and after knowing the arguments both Marx and Boudieu had about their effects on schools, I ask: HOW CAN CULTURAL AND SOCIAL REPRODUCTION BE MORE OF A DISADVANTANGE TO SOCIETY?

Cognitive Dissonance in Religion and Spirituality

Cognitive Dissonance in Religion Cognitive dissonance theory was developed by Leon Festinger more than fifty years ago as the most influential consistency theory of attitudes (Fanzoi, 2009). This theory argues that we often justify and rationalise our behavior in order to maintain cognitive consistency (Franzoi). In the classical cognitive dissonance experiment conducted by Festinger and J Merrill Carlsmitch, (Festinger, 1959, as cited in Franzoi, 2009) where a group of people were asked to perform two 30-minute mundane boring tasks where some were paid $1 and others were paid $20. At the end of the tasks, one group was asked to relay the message that the tasks were â€Å"very enjoyable† and â€Å"fun† to the next group of participants. There was also control group where they were not required to lie. At the end of the experiment, the entire group of participants were interviewed and asked the question how fun and interesting they actually found the tasks to be. The result of their finding showed that the $1 liars actually showed more enthusiasm in telling others that the tasks were â€Å"very interesting† and â€Å"fun† than the group who said so for $20. The $1 group was experiencing greater discomfort by telling the tasks as â€Å"very enjoyable† when they felt it was actually boring tasks whereas the $20 liars have more justification for their action. The cognitive dissonance experienced by the $1 liars naturally motivated to change their attitude in order to reduce the dissonance. According to Franzoi (2009), there are some strategies commonly employed to reduce cognitive dissonance such as changing one’s attitudes, adding more consonant thoughts, altering the importance of the discrepant thoughts, reducing perceived choice, making selfaffirmations to overlook current dissonance and changing behaviour. Having laid a little ground work on Cognitive Dissonance, I now wish to examine how we can observe cognitive dissonance occurring in one’s religion and spirituality. I will attempt to establish the premise that one’s spirituality may effect dissonance in one’s religious beliefs. â€Å"Religion is a fixed system of ideas while spirituality is the personal views on the fixed system of those ideas† (Ventis, 1995, as cited in LUTZ, L. 2003). â€Å"Given the Cognitive Dissonance in Religion facts that religious beliefs can be challenged by the critical historical studies, and cognitive dissonance would be generated when this occurred resulting in unconscious alteration of beliefs and attitudes† (Burns, 2006).A Study on Religion and the Role of It on People and Media†¦. When situations become inconsistent with one’s belief, dissonance would occur and needs to reduce it become obvious. When one is being perceived as hypocritical, such as â€Å"not practicing what he preaches, one would engage an unconscious strategy to reduce the dissonance often through the misattribution of arousal to a source other than one’s own discrepant behaviour† (Burns). This is an effective way â€Å"to maintain one’s self-concept as a psychologically consistent and moral person† (Fried and Aronson, 1995; Aronson, 1999, as cited by Burns, 2006). In a 1975 study of young women participating in a Christian youth program were first asked to state their beliefs publicly concerning the divinity of Jesus. They were then exposed to information aimed at disconfirming the divinity claim. The study found that those who believed Jesus’ divinity and also considered the disconfirming information as bona fide dealt with the cognitive dissonance by strengthening their belief in the divinity of Jesus. Those who dismissed the disconfirming information as true did not intensify their stance. The study showed that in some cases â€Å"the dissonance can actually reinforce original attitudes† (Burris, Harmon-Jones, and Tarpley, 1997, as cited in Burns, 2006). Kimberly Mahaffy (1996) did a study on religion and how it effects cognitive dissonance (Mahaffy,1996, as cited by MCCLUNG, 1999). â€Å"This study consisted of participants who were self-proclaimed lesbians who were either associated with a Christian church previously or presently† (MCCLUNG). The objective of the study was to determine do these women experienced dissonance when they realized their sexual orientations. Her finding concluded that the pre-evangelical Christians experienced more dissonance than their counter-parts and some women resorted to denying the supremacy of the Bible and thus Cognitive Dissonance in Religion believe that their sexual orientations may not be against their beliefs (Mahaffy, 1996, as cited by MCCLUNG, 1999). My personal association with two friends who are gay who regarded themselves to be committed Christians, high cognitive dissonance appeared to occur when they first realized their sexual orientations; they even attempted suicides. They claimed to have made attempts to change their behaviour, sought medical treatments but to no avail. They eventually conceded their current lifestyle was not by choice. I would like to cite an observation of cognitive dissonance in my personal spirituality. I used to hold strong conviction that God has ordained the church I pastor to be in Mid Valley; its existence there has been ordained. There has been much self-affirmation with providence for the first eight years confirming and intensifying that stance. However, tension started to develop the last two years when financial commitment became burdensome. Cognition dissonance of spirituality became obvious with questions held in great tensions: â€Å"Why do we need to continue paying high rental to stay in Mid Valley? † vs. â€Å"But isn’t God able to provide? † â€Å"How do we justify paying so much with little result to show? † vs. â€Å"But isn’t it worth it if even one soul has been saved? † â€Å"Aren’t we called to be in Mid Valley? † vs. â€Å"May be God is redirecting our path to elsewhere; better use the money to buy own building. The dissonance to remain in current location and the contemplation to relocate became a spiritual crisis. Coping strategies began to emerge. One member has suggested it is alright to relocate with the hope of returning once we consolidated. The same member altered the importance of the discrepancy with his remark, â€Å"It’s crucial to r elocate to conserve resource than to stay on till a crisis looms large. † I personally entertained the notion of financial limitation as sign of divine redirection. As long as dissonance remains high, justification intensifies. Once I embraced new attitudes justifying relocation, dissonance Cognitive Dissonance in Religion seemed to reduce significantly. With newly changed attitudes and beliefs, previous justification supporting old beliefs become irrelevant. From the observation of studies done by Burns (2006), Burris, Harmon-Jones, and Tarpley (1997, as cited by Burns, 2006), Mahaffy (1996, as cited by MCCLUNG, 1999) and from the reflection of personal affect, one could reasonably conclude that cognitive dissonance has been observed to occur in religion and spirituality.

Conflicts in the Great Gatsby

1. Individual vs. societyGatsby vs. the American society in 1920sFrom Nick’s perspective, Gatsby might have made vast fortune by illegal means and is capable of behaving like an aristocrat, he is still not respected as the ‘old money’ from East Egg; Gatsby’s mansion, his shimmering parties, fancy clothes and cars, cannot erase his past as a low-born farmer’s son after all. He dreams to be recognized as one of the upper-class people, but is frequently looked down by people like Tom Buchanan and the Sloanes who was born noble and is accustomed to live a luxurious life.Gatsby’s struggle to be among a higher social class is conflict with what he really is; therefore he cannot be seen and treated equally. His tragedy is an evidence of himself being an victim of the society he lived in, where social classes were considered more valuable than one’s inner spirit and materialism was concerned way more than humanity.2. Characters vs. characterGat sby vs. TomFirst of all, Gatsby represents the new money and Tom represents the old money. While Gatsby acquired his money by doing illegal businesses, Tom only inherited his money without putting efforts. Nevertheless, Tom still feel privileged over Gatsby due to his favorable family background. This is the first conflict. Second, Gatsby and Tom compete with each other for winning Daisy’s love. While Gatsby represents the past of Daisy – the more innocent and perhaps the ideal of Daisy, Tom represents the reality of her – the cynicism and materialism inside of her.Nick vs. JordanWhile Nick’s character stands for the idea of justice and honesty, Jordan’s character is just the opposite. Her cynicism, carelessness and dishonesty is shown clearly through the conversation she had with Nick about driving a car, where Nick describes Jordan as a careless, ‘rotten’ driver’ (‘It takes two to make an accident.’ Said Jordan. à ¢â‚¬ËœSuppose you met somebody just as careless as yourself.’ Said Nick. ‘I hope I never will.† Said Jordan) and the fact that she has very likely cheated her first gold tournament.Tom vs. George WilsonWhile Tom represents the power of the ‘old money’ and the aristocratic quality of East Egg, George Wilson represents the poor, working class people and the spiritless characteristic of the Valley of Ashes.Myrtle vs. DaisyAlthough this two characters have never met each other in face, but the qualities and ideas they convey respectively are highly contradictory. Daisy: Dressed in white, affected, insubstantialMyrtle: Dressed in red, straightforward, fleshy, almost coarse3. Individual vs. circumstances (fate)Gatsby vs. his upbringingGatsby, as the protagonist in the novel, is a living example of ‘rags to riches’; he was born poor and his parents were ‘shiftless and unsuccessful farm people’. It seemed that Gatsby was doomed to li ve a poor and pathetic life where he has to work in the farm everyday in order to earn a living. Nevertheless, Gatsby’s fantasy about himself was contrary to his real circumstances. He believed that he was a Son of God; therefore he must be about his father’s business. Gatsby was motivated by his imaginations so much so he saw the light of hope and decided to grab the opportunity in front of him immediately when he saw Dan Cody’s yacht drop anchor over the most insidious flat on Lake Superior. He changed his fate with his own hands and overcame the conflicts.4. The individual vs. himself/herselfGatsby vs. himselfAlthough Gatsby has made most of his dreams become reality, he is not able to face the part of reality that he cannot change. He cannot admit the fact that Daisy is not as perfect as he imagined to be and he firmly believe that he can repeat the past. He is always blind by his illusions and idealism – so much so he is not able to move on. Everythi ng he has done is in pursuing of his self-made illusions – something he can only imagine but will never achieve or even find out in the reality. This quality of Gatsby is harmful to him and ultimately leads to his death.Nick vs. himselfNick has internal conflicts as he perceives the decadent life in New York. On the one hand, Nick is sick of the cynical, careless attitude that most of the wealthy people around him hold, and their lavish, materialism lifestyle. On the other hand, Nick also feels curious and attracted to the seemingly sophistication of those aristocratic people, despite their dishonesty – this is shown by Nick’s developing romance with Jordan Baker.

Christianity And The World And Judaism - 1291 Words

The ability of influence that an authority has on a person or group of people displays their power. Power emanates from knowledge. The practices belonging to specific religions exhibit their own sense of authority. Christianity is a monotheistic religion that bases their faith on the teachings of Jesus Christ. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion that bases their faith with the study of the Torah. Christianity is the largest practiced religion in the world and Judaism is the tenth largest. In the mid first century, Christianity began as a second temple Judaism. This being the time between the construction of the second temple in Jerusalem and the destruction of it which occurred in 70 CE. For Judaism, the second temple period was a time when challenges were asserted in reference to the variety of fluctuations based on the mainstream way of Judaism. Each of these religions follow specific practices and have their own study and understanding of authority. Christianity follows a system of laws and Jesus is seen as the giver of laws. Jesus relays the messages that his father has given to him. In the Bible it is written, â€Å"Then I said, ‘Here I am, it is written about me in the scroll: I have come to do Your will, O God† (Hebrews 10:7), He was saying that as written in the scriptures he was there to follow his father’s desired will. The people look to Jesus as an authority and he looks to God as his. Christianity is a practice and lifestyle and Christ is their modelShow MoreRelatedChristianity : The World And Judaism1290 Words   |  6 Pagesbelonging to specific religions exhibit their own sense of authority. Christianity is a monotheistic religion that bases their faith on the teachings of Jesus Christ. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion that bases their faith with the study of the Torah. Christianity is the largest practiced religion in the world and Judaism is the tenth largest. 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